Pretty Flower

 
Nick sent me this picture of a beautiful flower.¹ I hope it makes your Friday more pleasant.

---

1. The Best Flowering Plant.

ORFans

 
ORFans are putative genes that are only found in a single species or in a small number of closely related species. They are interesting examples of evolution. Creationists have focused on the large number of putative ORFans that have been reported in the scientific literature in order to cast doubt on evolutionary theory.

In today's Panda's Thumb Ian Musgrave has posted a long and excellent article on ORFans [Inordinately Fond of Viruses: ORFans and Intelligent Design]. It's a perfect example of how to refute a creationist ... in this case Paul Nelson.¹

---

1. I know. It's usually about as difficult as shooting fish in a barrel. But in this case Ian is making a number of important points that also challenge some scientists who are confused about ORFans.

It Happens to All of Us Eventually

 
We all make mistakes from time to time. Some of us make way more than others.

John Dennehy is not one of those people. His blog is excellent and he almost always comes up with wonderful citation classics that truly deserve the attention he gives them.

Today's citation classic is not one of those classics. John seems to have slipped up this time. I hope it's only temporary [This Week's Citation Classic].

---

Sophisticated Believers

The sophisticated believers have risen to the challenge. They are attempting to present reasons for believing ... reasons for not being an atheist.

One of the responses comes from Andrew Tatusko (Drew) on Notes from Off Center [God and Supernaturalism].

Drew is well qualified to represent the sophisticated view of religion ...

Andrew Tatusko is a graduate of Princeton Theological Seminary (1999, 2000) from which he earned an M.Div. and Th.M. There he focused on philosophical theology, philosophy of education, and postmodern theory. From there he was a senior instructional designer at Seton Hall University where he worked on initiatives to integrate technology into teaching and learning. Currently he is the program activity director for a Title III grant to integrate technology into teaching, learning, retention and advising at Mount Aloysius College in Cresson, PA.

He currently lives in Duncansville, PA with wife Brenna, sons Alexander and Evan, Stella (Rhodesian Ridgeback mix) and Sophie (Rhodesian Ridgeback) and two cats Digit and Kit Kat. Drew has published articles on postmodern theory, theology, and education. He is working on his dissertation in an effort to complete the Ph.D. in Higher Education Leadership, Management and Policy at Seton Hall University. The focus of the dissertation in on the influence of theological tradition on policy development in religiously-affiliated higher education since the 1970’s.

I'm looking forward to hearing his best arguments against atheism. I assume he's just getting started.

The other sophisticated believer is James F. McGrath on Exploring Our Matrix. McGrath is also well qualified to represent the sophisticated believer position. He is an Associate Professor of Religion at Butler University in Indianapolis (USA). He is the author of John's Apologetic Christology: Legitimation and Development in Johannine Christology [Amazon.com].

James is having trouble explaining his position and his frustration is showing at Not Geting Through.

If you are interested in this discussion then please read their blogs to learn more about how modern sophisticated believers refute Richard Dawkins and the other "new atheists."

See Sophisticated Religion for more discussion.

---

Nobel Laureates: George Beadle and Edward Tatum

 

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1958.

"for their discovery that genes act by regulating definite chemical events"

George Wells Beadle (1903 - 1989) and Edward Lawrie Tatum (1909 - 1975) received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work on the relationship between genes and enzymes—the "one-gene-one-enzyme" concept. They showed that single mutations usually affected production of a single enzyme in a pathway. This lead to the idea that genes encode proteins (enzymes). The concept of one-gene-one-enzyme was not meant to exclude the possibility that genes could encode RNAs or something else, in spite of the fact that this interpretation has become widely believed. The point of Beadle and Tatum's work was to show that there was a one-to-one correspondence between a gene and a protein.

THEME:Nobel LaureatesJoshua Lederberg, a former student of Beadle and Tatum's, shared the Nobel Prize with them in 1958.

The presentation speech was given by Professor T. Caspersson, member of the Staff of Professors of the Royal Caroline Institute.

Your Majesties, Your Royal Highnesses, Ladies and Gentlemen.

One of the most striking features in the development of science during the past two decades is the rapid advance in the diverse fields of biology. Here the tempo of progress continues to quicken. The research contains a vast and complex material whose major portion remains the business of specialists. The observations they make in the laboratories of basic research are apparently distant from the needs of the everyday world. But again and again we discover how short the step is from these basic findings to advances in medical therapy or diagnosis that are of importance to all of us in our daily lives.

For an example we need turn only to the previous Nobel Prize in Genetics, awarded to H.J. Muller for his discovery that X-ray irradiation can change the genetic material in living organisms. The discovery was made, and the detailed analysis carried out, in a type of small fruit fly, and at the time that the prize was awarded, perhaps gave the impression that its greatest interest was in its contribution to basic principles. Now, with the era of atomic energy upon us, we all know that the genetic risks from the high-energy radiation threatening man, belong to the things I just mentioned, of vital and immediate importance to us all.

Experimental genetics is a branch of modern biology in which progress has been especially rapid. The methods and points of view of this and its allied disciplines are indispensable for many fields of medicine today. This rapidly increasing importance of experimental genetics and cell research is easily understood. The research is now reaching towards the very elements of heredity, the structures within each cell that control its life and its behavior, and thus ultimately determine the development of the whole organism. Now we begin to see what the fundamental biological processes may be. That discoveries in this field have consequences in many others is surely no surprise to any of us.

The work of all three winners of the prize lies on this plane. Their studies are concerned with the very basis of heredity and the manner in which the genes function. That hereditary characters are transmitted from parents to offspring via special elements in the ovum and spermatozoon, the so-called genes, has long been known. The organism that develops from the fertilized ovum receives certain of the parents' characters through these genes, and the genetic material in the fertilized egg, that is to say, all these genes combined, determines the development of the organism.

The cells that together constitute an organism as a rule contain a complete set of genes characteristic of the species. In ordinary cell division these are divided and subsequently distributed equally between the two daughter cells. At fertilization, the different genetic materials from two individuals unite in the fusion of the egg and the sperm. The result of the sexual reproduction is to provide offspring with genes from both of their parents. In this way, individuals with differing combinations of characters originate. And just herein lies the biologic value of the sexual process, which can be traced throughout practically the entire animal and plant kingdoms. Without the renewal such a constant recombination of characters involves, an animal or plant species would not be able to survive the struggle for existence.

The characters, which are transmitted by the genes from generation to generation, present a picture of bewildering multiplicity. This very multiplicity of the genes' effects made it difficult to attack experimentally the problem of their structure and manner of functioning; it was impossible to trace straightforward lines that could serve as a background for an experimental study.

The situation was radically changed by Beadle and Tatum, who, through a daring and astute selection of experimental material, created a possibility for a chemical attack upon the field. Circumstantial evidence pointed to a similarity of the genetic mechanisms throughout the entire plant and animal kingdoms. Beadle and Tatum selected as object for their investigations an organism with very simple structure, a bread mold, Neurospora crassa, which is far easier to work with, in many respects, than the objects usually studied in genetics. It is able to synthesize its body substances from a very simple culture medium: sugar, salts, and a growth factor. When cultures of the mold are exposed to X-ray irradiation, mutations - that is, changes in individual genes - result as they do in other organisms. By producing a large number of such mutations and by means of an analysis of the material, which should serve as a model for analytic research, Beadle and Tatum succeeded in demonstrating that the body substances are synthesized in the individual cell step by step in long chains of chemical reactions, and that genes control these processes by individually regulating definite steps in the synthesis chain. This regulation takes place through formation by the gene of special enzymes. If a gene is damaged, for example through irradiation-induced mutation, the chain is broken, the cell becomes defective - and may possibly be unable to survive. Even in the formation of comparatively simple substances the steps in the synthetic chain are many, and consequently the number of collaborating genes large. This explains simply why gene function appeared to be so impossibly complex. The discovery provides our best means of penetrating into the manner in which the genes work and has now become one of the foundations of modern genetics. Its importance extends over other fields as well, however.

Especially valuable is the possibility it affords for detailed study of the processes of chemical synthesis in the living organism. In Neurospora material it is easy by means of X-ray irradiation to produce quickly a large number of strains in which the function of different individual genes has been disturbed. By comparing these strains we are able to determine in detail how the different stages of synthesis succeed one another when the cell's substances are formed. Beadle and Tatum's technique has become one of our most important tools for the study of cell metabolism and has already yielded results of significance to various problems in the fields of medicine and general biology.

The successful results with Neurospora also provided an incentive to continued efforts to probe the basic processes further with the aid of even simpler organisms. The bacteria are even more primitive than Neurospora. The bacterial genetic mechanism was little known; many even doubted that they had one comparable with that of the higher forms of life. Tatum extended the approaches worked out in Neurospora to the bacteria. When Lederberg came to Tatum's laboratory as a young student, they discovered that different bacterial strains could be crossed to produce an offspring containing a new combination of genetic factors. This is the counterpart of the normal sexual fertilization in higher organism; it is usually considered preferable here, however, to speak of «genetic recombination». Bacterial genetics has been developed, primarily through the efforts of Lederberg and his coworkers, into an extensive research field in recent years. He also contributed further evidence that the genetic mechanism of the bacteria corresponds to that of the higher organisms. Moreover, thanks to their simple structure and extraordinarily rapid growth, bacteria provided new and excellent possibilities for a more profound study of the genetic mechanisms. Lederberg has made many contributions in this field. Particularly important is his discovery that sexual fertilization is not the only process leading to recombination of characters in bacteria. Bits of genetic material can, if they are introduced into the bacterial body, become part of the genetic material of the bacterial cell and thus change its constitution. This is usually termed «transduction», and it is the first example demonstrating that it is possible experimentally to manipulate an organism's genetic material and to introduce new genes into it and, the organism new characters. Studies in this are now being carried out in many laboratories in different parts of the world.

The transduction process and certain other related phenomena have greatly improved our means of penetrating experimentally into the basic processes of cell function and cell growth. In all probability they will also prove to have great significance in the study of the function of the higher organisms under normal and pathologic conditions. Work in this field, carried out in laboratories throughout the world, has already greatly expanded our knowledge of the basic processes in bacteriophage infection and of the mechanism of virus infection. The observations also have opened the way to a more profound understanding of certain growth problems. Certainly cancer research will be increasingly influenced by the evolution of our knowledge of the organization of the genetic material and its manner of functioning, that has been made possible by the discoveries of this year's three winners of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

Doctor Beadle and Doctor Tatum. In consequence of an exemplary collaboration in which each has complemented the other to unusual advantage, it has been given to you to make discoveries of fundamental importance to our understanding of the mechanism of Life's processes.

Doctor Lederberg. At first in collaboration with your co-winners of this year's Nobel Prize, and subsequently, along ever-broadening independent lines, you have made possible the advance of research to the structure of the actual genetic material.

Gentlemen. In recognition of your outstanding contributions to science the Karolinska Institute has awarded you this year's Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. On behalf of the Institute I wish to extend the warmest congratulations from your colleagues on your brilliant achievements.

It is my honoured privilege now to invite you to receive your awards from the hands of His Majesty the King.

---

Who's Afraid of Bisphenol A?

 
The latest issue of the Tangled Bank points to an article on Giovanna Di Sauro about the dangers of bisphenol A. Recall that bisphenol A is a chemical found in polycarbonate drinking bottles [see Is Your Water Bottle Killing You?].

The first article outlines the chemistry of bisphenol A and its effect on mammalina cells. It refers to the latest papers that have prompted a ban on bisphenol A [Who's Afraid of Bisphenol A: (Part 1)].

The second article discusses whether bisphenol A is dangerous to humans. Can it cause cancer? [Who's Afraid of Bisphenol A: (Part 1)].

I won't tell you the conclusion because, if I did, you wouldn't read the excellent articles on Giovanna Di Sauro. But here's a teaser ...

Making decision in relation to BPA is made even more complicated by the fact that there are many estrogen-like compounds in our environment which are already in the food chain, and which we can absorb by consuming both animal and vegetable products: BPA absorption might only be the tip of the iceberg when it comes to xenoestrogen intake. It would be useful to see what the "total xenoestrogen insult" is in an average adult who consumes meat, vegetables and dairy, and to see what role BPA is playing to increase this insult. Only then we will be able to assess whether cancer risk arising from BPA ingestion is significant, or whether we would do better to worry about different sources of xenoestrogen.

---

Tangled Bank #105

 
The latest issue of Tangled Bank is #105. It's hosted at The Beagle Project Blog [Tangled Bank #105].

Welcome, readers, to this tag-teamed edition of the Tangled Bank blog carnival.

In the left-justified corner, all the way from the north Yorkshire coast, not far from where Darwin 'took the waters' in Ilkley, it's Peter McGrath.

And in the right-justified corner, coming to you from London, just a few miles away from Downe Bank, Darwin's inspiration for the tangled bank where "endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved", it's Karen James.

Well, you glorious swine. Speaking for myself, my blogreading life was full enough without discovering some of the new delights carnivalled here. The long evening reading all these posts has been a 'mental riot' (Darwin's description of the intellectual ferment when he was incubating The Origin), for which many thanks and the RSS has a slew of new entries. A tangled bank is not a monoculture, and I think we can offer something for all here.

I would never call our dear readers much less our prolific bank-tanglers 'swine', however glorious, but I certainly do share Peter's admiration for this fortnight's entries.

---

If you want to submit an article to Tangled Bank send an email message to host@tangledbank.net. Be sure to include the words "Tangled Bank" in the subject line. Remember that this carnival only accepts one submission per week from each blogger. For some of you that's going to be a serious problem. You have to pick your best article on biology.

I Don't Care

 
There's been a lot of talk in the past two days about the true beliefs of Albert Einstein. A new letter has come to light suggesting that he was a pantheist at best. Richard Dawkins discusses it at Richard Dawkins discusses Einstein's new letters.

Albert Einstein died in 1955. I don't care whether he believed in a personal God, or a Spinoza God, or no God at all. What he believed has no bearing on whether supernatural beings exist or not. The beliefs of Francis Collins and Ken Miller are equally irrelevant.

What counts is the arguments they advance to bolster their beliefs and in the case of Albert Einstein we don't have a very good record of what those arguments are. This isn't true of some other scientists (Collins, Miller) where we can examine the claims to see if they are rational.

---

Bertrand Russell's Teapot

 
Here's the original version of Bertrand Russell's argument, quoted from Russell's teapot on Wikipedia.

If I were to suggest that between the Earth and Mars there is a china teapot revolving about the sun in an elliptical orbit, nobody would be able to disprove my assertion provided I were careful to add that the teapot is too small to be revealed even by our most powerful telescopes. But if I were to go on to say that, since my assertion cannot be disproved, it is an intolerable presumption on the part of human reason to doubt it, I should rightly be thought to be talking nonsense. If, however, the existence of such a teapot were affirmed in ancient books, taught as the sacred truth every Sunday, and instilled into the minds of children at school, hesitation to believe in its existence would become a mark of eccentricity and entitle the doubter to the attentions of the psychiatrist in an enlightened age or of the Inquisitor in an earlier time.

This is a very powerful argument; however, it relies on one important bit of information, namely that we could not detect Russell's teapot if it really were orbiting the sun.

This important assumption is about to be put to the test now that the teapot has been located and we have the Hubble telescope in orbit. See The Wedgewood Document on Sneer Review for all the details about the experiment.

We atheists could be in big trouble if this pans out ....

---

[See A Teapot in Space for the connection between Russell's teapot and The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.]

Monday's Molecule #71

 
Today is Tuesday so it must be time for Monday's Molecule. (Oops! I was traveling yesterday and didn't get around to posting. It doesn't matter since today is a much more important day anyway—it's my birthday.)

Today's molecule is essential for all life as we know it. You need to identify the molecule and give its correct common name as well as the formal IUPAC name. Pay attention to the correct common name—some trivial names just won't do.

There's an indirect connection between today's molecule and a Nobel Prize. The prize I have in mind was not awarded for working out the structure of the molecule. We've already covered that prize. Instead, the prize was for learning something very important about the pathway for synthesis of the molecule. Something genetic.

The first person to correctly identify the molecule and name the Nobel Laureate(s) wins a free lunch at the Faculty Club. Previous winners are ineligible for one month from the time they first collected the prize. There are three ineligible candidates for this week's reward.

THEME:

Nobel Laureates
Send your guess to Sandwalk (sandwalk (at) bioinfo.med.utoronto.ca) and I'll pick the first email message that correctly identifies the molecule and names the Nobel Laureates. Note that I'm not going to repeat Nobel Laureate(s) so you might want to check the list of previous Sandwalk postings.

Correct responses will be posted tomorrow. I may select multiple winners if several people get it right.

Comments will be blocked for 24 hours. Comments are now open.

UPDATE: The molecule is pyridoxine (3- hydroxy-4,5 -bis (hydroxymethyl) -2-methylpyridine) also known as vitamin B₆. (Pyridoxal and pyridoxamine, along with pyridoxine, make up the members of the B₆ family.)

The Nobel Laureates are George Beadle and Edward Tatum who discovered that mutations in Neurospora affected single enzymes in a pathway. Mutants that were unable to grow on vitamin B₆ were among the first mutants they isolated in the 1940's.

The winner this week is Bill Chaney from the University of Nebraska.

---

White Water

 
These photos were taken near the Champlain Bridge on the Ottawa river not far from where I grew up. This is right in the heart of Ottawa (Canada).

We never saw anything like this when we were children. The most exciting thing on the Champlain rapids was the occasional log and, rarely, a canoe shooting the rapids.

---

The Dandelion Festival in Ottawa

 
Every year in May there's a famous dandelion festival in Ottawa (Canada). People come from all over the world to see the millions of dandelions along the parkways and walkways throughout the city.


Dandelion lovers are very tolerant and generous with their praise of lesser flowers. Here's a small group of dandelion fans admiring some other kind of yellow flower.


The various governments in Ottawa take advantage of the dandelion festival to promote other festivals that are scheduled in early May. The tulip festival is a prime example. Being ecumenical chaps, the tourists who come to see the dandelions will naturally drop by to look at the tulip beds, if they have time. Tulips are pretty picky about where they grow so the flowers are clustered in only a few spots in the city. (Dandelions are everywhere.)

Today was a very nice day in Ottawa. Here's a group of flower lovers who are taking a brief look at the tulips around Dow's Lake. There were about 20,000 people there when we drove by on our way back from seeing the dandelions.



Some tulips are almost as pretty as dandelions ....


I said almost.

---

The Best Flowering Plant

 
Tulips are the best flower according to Jane and Michael on Beer with Chocolate. Jane and Michael may have been slightly influenced by their Birthday Adventure in Holland.

Much as I hate to disagree with my offspring (), tulips are not the best flowering plant. Dandelions (from the French dent de lion - lion's teeth) are the best plant.

Not only are dandelions beautiful, they are hardy and ubiquitous. They can grow almost anywhere with a minimum of care. In fact, you have to make special efforts to get rid of them—something you would only do if you have an extreme anti-dandelion prejudice. These days, civic governments throughout Canada are banning herbicides in order to save the dandelion. (You don't see anyone doing that for tulips, do you Jane?)

The most common species of dandelion is Taraxacum officinale.

The flowers are pretty. You can eat the leaves. The leaves will cure many diseases. You can make wine with dandelions. A company in Belgium called Brasserie Fantôme even makes a dandelion beer called Fantôme Pissenlit. (= wet the bed, from dendelion's medicinal properties).

---

DNA Replication in E. coli: The Solution

In an earlier posting I described a problem that we often use to encourage critical thinking in our undergraduates. The problem is how can E. coli divide faster that the time it takes to replicate it's chromosome? [DNA Replication in E. coli: The Problem]

Recall that DNA replication always begins at an origin of replication. In bacteria there is usually one origin per chromosome or plasmid. (Eukaryotic chromsomes have multiple origins.)

The replisomes assemble at the origin and then move in opposite directions around the chromomome until the meet at the termination region. Each replisome moves at a rate of 1000 nucleotides per second and it takes about 38 minutes to complete one round of replication. But E. coli can divide every 20 minutes. That's the problem.

The firing of an origin is controlled by regulatory proteins. These proteins trigger the assembly of replisomes at the origin sequences. When most of us are first presented with this problem we think in terms of the events occurring sequentially. Thus, a chromosome is copied, the daughter chromosomes segregate, and a new round of replication begins.

This isn't what happens when the cells are dividing rapidly. Instead, a new round of replication begins at the "future origin" before the current round of replication is completed. At any given instant, there can be six or eight replication forks synthesizing DNA simultaneously inside the cell.

In order for the cell to divide every 20 minutes, all that is required is that a round of replication terminate every 20 minutes. This means that origins fire every 20 minutes. When the daughter chromosome segregate into daughter cells, they are already partially replicated in preparation for the next cell division.

Here's how Fossum et al. (2007) describe the solution in a recent paper in EMBO Journal.

The bacterium Escherichia coli has a single chromosome that is replicated from a single origin (oriC), bidirectionally to the terminus, once per division cycle (Kornberg and Baker, 1992). The cell cycle of slowly growing bacteria is quite similar to that of eukaryotic cells (Boye et al, 1996), with the G1, S and G2/M phases of bacteria termed B, C and D, respectively. E. coli (and certain other bacteria) is capable of very rapid growth in rich medium, with doubling times as short as 20 min. The replication time, however, remains long, with approximately 60–90 min required to replicate and segregate the chromosome. Therefore, the cell cycle is more complicated during rapid growth (Figure 1). If the time it takes to synthesize and segregate the daughter chromosomes (C+D) exceeds one generation time, a new round of replication must be initiated before the previous round is completed (Cooper and Helmstetter, 1968). Thus, initiation occurs at two origins in the 'mother' cell. It can even occur in the 'grandmother' cell at four origins if the time it takes to replicate and segregate the chromosome exceeds two generations. These initiations at two or four origins occur simultaneously, as one event per division cycle (Skarstad et al, 1986). While E. coli and Bacillus subtilis are two examples of bacteria capable of performing multifork replication, other bacteria, such as Caulobacter crescentus, are not. Eukaryotic cells do not replicate with overlapping cycles, but do initiate DNA replication at multiple replication origins, and thus perform a different kind of multifork replication, with the multiple forks on the same copy of the genome (Diffley, 2004).

Figure 1:Replication pattern of rapidly growing E. coli wild-type cells. Cells (yellow) with chromosomes (blue lines) and origins (black squares) are drawn schematically to show the number of replication forks and origins at different stages of the cell cycle. In this example, initiation of replication occurs at four origins at the same time as cell division (bottom). A young cell therefore contains four origins and six replication forks (upper left). As replication proceeds, the oldest pair of forks reach the terminus and the two sister chromosomes segregate. The cell then contains four origins and four replication forks (upper right). Initiation then occurs again at 4 origins and generates 8 new forks giving a total of 12 forks, as cell division approaches (bottom). Because there will be cell-to-cell variability, some cells will contain eight origins before they divide, whereas cells that divide before initiation of replication will contain only two origins (not shown). However, the majority of the cells in the culture will contain four origins.

---

Fossum, S., Crooke, E. and Skarstad, K. (2007) Organization of sister origins and replisomes during multifork DNA replication in Escherichia coli. EMBO J 26:4514–4522 [doi:10.1038/sj.emboj.7601871]

Gene Genie #31

 
The 31st edition of Gene Genie has been posted at Adaptive Complexity [Capitalists, Genetic Tests and Your DNA].

Everyone knows there is a lot of crazy stuff on the internet, but did you know there is a lot of great writing about genes, genetics, and human diseases? And believe it or not, sometimes these pieces are written by people who know what they're talking about. If you're looking for what's new in human genetics, you've come to the right place.

Welcome to the 31st Gene Genie, a blog carnival dedicated to great blogging about human genes and how they impact our health. This Mother's Day edition includes an in-depth highlight of the growing industry of personalized genetics.

The beautiful logo was created by Ricardo at My Biotech Life.

The purpose of this carnival is to highlight the genetics of one particular species, Homo sapiens.

Here are all the previous editions .....

1. Scienceroll
2. Sciencesque
3. Genetics and Health
4. Sandwalk
5. Neurophilosophy
6. Scienceroll
7. Gene Sherpa
8. Eye on DNA
9. DNA Direct Talk
10. Genomicron
11. Med Journal Watch
12. My Biotech Life
13. The Genetic Genealogist
14. MicrobiologyBytes
15. Cancer Genetics
16. Neurophilosophy
17. The Gene Sherpa
18. Eye on DNA
19. Scienceroll
20. Bitesize Bio
21. BabyLab
22. Sandwalk
23. Scienceroll
24. biomarker-driven mental health 2.0
25. The Gene Sherpa
26. Sciencebase
27. DNA Direct Talk
28. Greg Laden’s Blog
29. My Biotech Life
30. Gene Expression
31. Adaptive Complexity

---