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[Hat Tip: Canadian Cynic]
[Photo credit: Astronomy Picture of the Day for October 4, 2007.]
[See Bad Astronomy for more information and links about Sputnik I.
College today is a place in which students from many backgrounds converge, and it is neither feasible nor desirable to prescribe for them some common morality. But college should be a place that fosters open debate of the ethical issues posed by modern life — by genetic screening and engineering; by the blurring of the lines dividing birth, life and death; by the global clash between liberal individualism and fundamentalism.I just came back from a class where my students discussed evolution and creationism with me and my colleague, who happens to be a Jesuit Priest. It was a lot of fun but you know what? In a university of 72,000 students (59,000 undergraduates) this class represents only a tiny fraction of the student body. The vast majority don't want this kind of education no matter how valuable we think it is. It's simply not true that if you create the classes they will come.
Some signs suggest that higher education is waking up to its higher obligations. There is more and more interest in teaching great books that provoke students to think about justice and responsibility and how to live a meaningful life. Applications are up at Columbia and the University of Chicago, which have compulsory great-books courses; students at Yale show growing interest in the “Directed Study” program, in which they read the classics; and respected smaller institutions like Ursinus College in Pennsylvania have built their own core curriculums around major works of philosophy and literature.This is where I part company with the Professor of Humanities. There was a time when I thought that the old books were a wonderful way to build a good program in liberal education. But since then I've come to appreciate that part of the problem is scientific illiteracy and we don't solve that problem by focusing all our attention on dead philosophers and even deader novelists.
[Photo Credit: The top photograph shows a walkway in one of theolder buildings on the University of Toronto campus from the Macleans website]
[Hat Tip: Michael White at Adaptive Complexity who has some interesting comments that are worth reading(Do Universities care about more than image?)]
Don't buy this book. Stick your brain in a blender first.Are those the only two choices?
"for her discovery of mobile genetic elements"
Your Majesties, Your Royal Highnesses, Ladies and Gentlemen,
The Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1983 recognizes a great discovery about the organization of genes on chromosomes and how these genes, by changing places, can alter their function. This discovery, made while investigating blue, brown, and red spots on maize kernels, resulted in new knowledge of great medical importance - information which provides the key to problems as diverse as hospital infections, African sleeping sickness and chromosome changes in cancer cells. In order to explain this link, we must start at the beginning; namely with Barbara McClintock's investigations of coloured spots on maize kernels.
The maize cobs that we buy at the supermarket usually have yellow kernels. This is not always the case with wild forms of maize. In Central and South America where maize originated, one can still find primitive types of maize where the kernels are blue, brown or red. The colour depends on pigments in the surface layer of the kernel endosperm. The endosperm is the food store for the developing seedling. The synthesis of kernel pigments is controlled by the genes of the maize plant. In some cases one finds differently coloured kernels on the same cob. The explanation for this is that the cob is formed from a group of female flowers. Each of these female flowers may be fertilized independently by a pollen gram from a male flower. Maize cobs with differently coloured kernels arise when the pollen grains do not carry the same genes for endosperm pigments. All these phenomena can be explained on the basis of the laws of the inheritance stated by Gregor Mendel in 1866. What cannot be explained, however, and what puzzled plant breeders in the 1920's, was that maize kernels sometimes have numerous spots or dots, rather than being evenly coloured as would be expected. It was suspected that the dots on the kernels were due to the instability of genes involved in the pigment synthesis. These genes were believed to undergo mutations during the development of the kernel. Should such a mutation be inherited by several generations of daughter cells it would result in a differently coloured spot. This idea received further support when it was found that maize with variegated kernels also had broken chromosomes. The problem of variegation in maize was of slight importance from a practical point of view, but it fascinated Barbara McClintock because it evidently could not be explained on the basis of Mendelian genetics.
McClintock analyzed this phenomenon by studying chromosome changes and the results of crossing experiments in maize with different patterns of variegation. She was able to identify a series of genes on chromosome number 9 that determine pigmentation and other characteristics of the endosperm. She found that variegation occurred when a small piece of chromosome 9 moved from one place on the chromosome to another close to a gene coding for a pigment. The usual effect was to switch off the gene, and furthermore, the chromosome frequently showed a break at the site of integration. McClintock called these types of genetic material "control elements" since they clearly altered the function of neighbouring genes. In a series of very advanced experiments carried out between 1948 and 1951, McClintock mapped several families of control elements. These elements affected not only the pigmentation pattern of the maize kernels but other properties as well. She also pointed out that mobile genetic elements were probably present in insects and higher animals. In spite of this, her observations received very little attention. This was because her findings, when first presented, were overshadowed by the discovery that the DNA molecule stores the genetic information in its structure. It also became evident that mutations involving only one change in one of the building blocks in the DNA molecule could have serious effects. Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that few geneticists were prepared to accept that genes could jump in the irresponsible manner that McClintock proposed for controlling elements. The "state of the art" in molecular genetics at that time made it difficult to accept "jumping genes", and thus McClintock had to await the development of methodological tools powerful enough to verify in biochemical terms her great discovery.In the mid-sixties, mobile genetic elements were found to play an important role in the spreading of resistance to antibiotics from resistant to sensitive strains of bacteria. This type of transferable drug resistance is a serious problem in hospitals since it causes infections that are very difficult to treat. During the 1970's, more support was found for the medical significance of mobile genetic structures. It was found, for instance, that the transposition of genes is an important step in the formation of antibodies. It has always been a mystery how the body, using a limited number of genes, can form an almost endless number of different antibodies to foreign substances. Nature has solved this problem according to the building block principle. When an individual is born, the chromosomes carry a set of mobile building blocks for antibody genes. By recombining these blocks in various ways in different cells, the body is able to generate millions of genes for antibodies.
During the last few years mobile genetic structures have attracted great interest in cancer research. In certain forms of cancer, growth regulating genes called oncogenes, are transposed from one chromosome to another. Tumour viruses in birds and mice have been found to carry oncogenes which they, in all likelihood, originally picked up from a host cell. If a virus then introduces these genes in the wrong place on the chromosomes of a normal cell, the latter is transformed into a cancer cell.
McClintock's discovery of mobile genetic elements in maize, therefore, has been found to have counterparts also in bacteria, animals and humans.
What led McClintock to devote her research to the variegation of maize kernels was that it did not lit in with Mendelian genetics. With immense perseverance and skill, McClintock, working completely on her own, carried out experiments of great sophistication that demonstrated that hereditary information is not as stable as had previously been thought. This discovery has led to new insights into how genes change during evolution and how mobile genetic structures on chromosomes can change the properties of cells. Her research has helped to elucidate a series of complicated medical problems.
Dr. McClintock,
I have tried to summarize to this audience your work on mobile genetic elements in maize and to show how basic research in plant genetics can lead to new perspectives in medicine. Your work also demonstrates to scientists, politicians and university administrators how important it is that scientists are given the freedom to pursue promising lines of research without having to worry about their immediate practical applications. To young scientists, living at a time of economic recession and university cutbacks, your work is encouraging because it shows that great discoveries can still be made with simple tools.
On behalf of the Nobel Assembly of the Karolinska Institute I wish to convey to you our warmest congratulations and I ask you to receive your Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine from His Majesty the King.
[Photo Credit: The pictures of the corn kernels are from Moran, Scrimgeour et al. Biochemistry 1998.]
Kroon, J., Souer, E., de Graaff, A., Xue, Y., Mol, J. and Koes, R. (1994) Cloning and structural analysis of the anthocyanin pigmentation locus Rt of Petunia hybrida: characterization of insertion sequences in two mutant alleles. Plant J. 5:69-80. [PubMed]
van Houwelingen, A., Souer, E., Spelt, K., Kloos, D., Mol, J. an Koes, R. (1998) Analysis of flower pigmentation mutants generated by random transpson mutagenesis in Petunia hybrida. Plant J. 13:39-50. [PubMed]
Beyond a 'speed limit' on mutations, species risk extinctionThis sounds very interesting. The limit of six mutations per genome per generation is far less than the calculated mutation rates for mammalian genomes [Mutation Rates] so it looks like another genetic load argument in favor of junk DNA.
Genomes of various organisms lose stability with more than 6 mutations per generation
CAMBRIDGE, Mass. -- Harvard University scientists have identified a virtual "speed limit" on the rate of molecular evolution in organisms, and the magic number appears to be 6 mutations per genome per generation -- a level beyond which species run the strong risk of extinction as their genomes lose stability.
By modeling the stability of proteins required for an organism's survival, Eugene Shakhnovich and his colleagues have discovered this essential thermodynamic limit on a species's rate of evolution. Their discovery, published this week in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, draws a crucial connection between the physical properties of genetic material and the survival fitness of an entire organism.
Because PNAS publishes daily online, you may read about an article in the news media on Monday or Tuesday, but the article may not publish online until later in the week. You may use the CiteTrack feature to set up an e-mail alert to notify you as soon as the article you are interested in publishes.This is unacceptable. If PNAS can't guarantee that a paper will be available when the press release embargo is lifted then they should change the embargo date. Most other journals have a restriction on press releases that delays the promotion of a paper until it is published and we can see for ourselves whether the hype and the reality match. Apparently PNAS is aware of this problem but instead of fixing it by moving the embargo date to Friday they choose to ignore publishing etiquette. This is wrong.
There are nine ways information can theoretically flow between DNA, RNA, and protein. Of these, three are seen throughout nature, DNA to DNA (replication), DNA to RNA (transcription), and RNA to protein (translation). Three more are known to occur in special circumstances like viruses or laboratory experiments (RNA to RNA, RNA to DNA, and DNA to protein). Flows of information from protein have not been observed. The trend is clear: information flow from DNA or RNA into protein is irreversible. This is known as the "central dogma," and forms the foundation of molecular biology.Yeah! As far as I know this is the only popular magazine to get it right.
... we are told that changing the system will result in chronic instability, a series of minority governments, one falling after the other; or else that it will lead to chronic gridlock, a legislature divided into dozens of smaller parties, some extremist, who would use their bargaining power to hijack the political process, demanding that one or other of the mainstream parties adopt their agenda in return for their support. The spectre of Israel and Italy are often invoked, as if to cinch the argument.Read the entire article to see just how misleading the opponent of MMP have become.
We can dispose of the last easily enough. One: Israel and Italy are uniquely divided societies, and were long before they adopted PR. Two: Neither country has ever used anything like the mixed system proposed for Ontario, but rather adopted much more extreme forms of PR, with no threshold for support.
As for the more specific fears, they would perhaps be more tenable were we the first country ever to try proportional representation -- were it not already in use, in one form or another, in most of the democratic world. But in fact it is, and in no country have any of the scare stories come to pass.
VoteForMMP.ca is accusing the Toronto Star of fear-mongering and inaccurate journalism in the Star's editorial today against electoral reform.The important point here is that Ontario parties will almost certainly adopt democratic practices in drawing up their lists. It makes sense and it's what other countries do. Let's not hear any more fearmongering about party lists. From now on, people who use that argument are not guilty of mere ignorance.
In today's editorial, the Toronto Star repeated the misleading claim that under Ontario's proposed new MMP system, the new province-wide candidates “could simply be appointed by party bosses.”
"This argument is regularly being used falsely by unthinking defenders of the status quo to deter support for needed electoral reform," said Rick Anderson, campaign chair of VoteForMMP.ca. "It's a shame that a media organization with the Star's credentials is not more careful with the facts regarding such an important question confronting voters."
...
In today's system, parties are left to determine their own methods for democratically nominating local candidates. Likewise, the Citizens’ Assembly left it to the individual parties to determine their own methods of nominating both riding and provincial candidates in the future, with the provisos that the parties are required to nominate their candidates publicly before voters vote and to publish the details of their candidate nomination processes in a clear, democratic and transparent fashion.
"In the other jurisdictions which use MMP all parties have adopted democratic candidate nomination processes for proportional candidates, just as they have for local candidates. Moreover, even in advance of the new system being adopted three of Ontario's four parties have already made public statements affirming they will follow democratic practices to nominate MMP candidates." (See backgounder below.)
"The notion that under MMP candidates would be appointed is simply hogwash," said Anderson. "Star readers should demand greater accuracy from their paper. Informed voters require a higher standard than this inaccurate sloganeering."
VoteForMMP.ca says the Toronto Star owes it to voters to do its homework on whether first-past-the-post (FPTP) or mixed member proportional (MMP) leads to better political consensus.
In an editorial today, the Toronto Star claimed that “Jurisdictions that have adopted some form or other of proportional representation – think of Italy, Israel, Germany, Belgium – have become notorious for chaotic politics and legislature gridlock.”
More than 80 countries use proportional voting systems, with some for more than a century. If colourful anecdotes suffice for “evidence”, does that mean Zimbabwe or Nigeria prove that FPTP is “notorious” for producing oppressive and corrupt regimes?
The respected comparative studies show countries with proportional representation enjoy stable, effective, representative, accountable governments, which tend to produce legislation more in line with majority viewpoint while maintaining strong economic performance.
Notwithstanding colourful politics, Italy is actually a fairly stable and successful country, as vibrant in its political culture as it is in so many other ways, and hardly a failing state. The periodic reorganizations of its governing coalitions are sometimes colourful to be sure, but are generally accomplished without elections or even changes of government, more akin to what we think of as cabinet shuffles than anything else. (See: minority governments in Canada for more disruptive examples of chaos). Where does the Star get off treating Italy this way - and forgiving what happens here in Canada when voters are divided in their preferences?
Germany is an example which directly disproves the Star's supposed point. When the 2005 elections produced a split outcome, and smaller parties demanded high concessions as the price of coalition support, the two largest parties instead agreed to collaborate together in forming a successful government. The Star should check its facts.
...
The Star is perpetuating two misleading myths: one that FPTP is relatively stable and the other that PR is not. The facts are generally the opposite of the Star's comfortable prejudice in favour of the status quo.
This summer, the White House, pushed by the office of Vice-President Dick Cheney, requested that the Joint Chiefs of Staff redraw long-standing plans for a possible attack on Iran, according to former officials and government consultants. The focus of the plans had been a broad bombing attack, with targets including Iran’s known and suspected nuclear facilities and other military and infrastructure sites. Now the emphasis is on “surgical” strikes on Revolutionary Guard Corps facilities in Tehran and elsewhere, which, the Administration claims, have been the source of attacks on Americans in Iraq. What had been presented primarily as a counter-proliferation mission has been reconceived as counterterrorism.It looks like the American people weren't buying the nuclear bomb spin so something new was needed. Who do you think is behind this new tactic? It's Dick Cheney, of course. Hersh quotes his unnamed source,
The shift in targeting reflects three developments. First, the President and his senior advisers have concluded that their campaign to convince the American public that Iran poses an imminent nuclear threat has failed (unlike a similar campaign before the Iraq war), and that as a result there is not enough popular support for a major bombing campaign. The second development is that the White House has come to terms, in private, with the general consensus of the American intelligence community that Iran is at least five years away from obtaining a bomb. And, finally, there has been a growing recognition in Washington and throughout the Middle East that Iran is emerging as the geopolitical winner of the war in Iraq.
The former intelligence official added, “There is a desperate effort by Cheney et al. to bring military action to Iran as soon as possible. Meanwhile, the politicians are saying, ‘You can’t do it, because every Republican is going to be defeated, and we’re only one fact from going over the cliff in Iraq.’ But Cheney doesn’t give a rat’s ass about the Republican worries, and neither does the President.”Judging from what I saw on television last week, the media is buying into the switch in tactics. Almost everyone who interviewed Ahmadinejad asked about "killing American soldiers in Iraq." Is it really this easy to trick the media? Doesn't anyone have the gumption to stand up to the propaganda machine and ask the hard questions?
“They’re moving everybody to the Iran desk,” one recently retired C.I.A. official said. “They’re dragging in a lot of analysts and ramping up everything. It’s just like the fall of 2002”—the months before the invasion of Iraq, when the Iraqi Operations Group became the most important in the agency. He added, “The guys now running the Iranian program have limited direct experience with Iran. In the event of an attack, how will the Iranians react? They will react, and the Administration has not thought it all the way through.”Surely those who advise the American President can't be this stupid? You'd think they would have learned a thing or two from their previous mistakes in 2003, wouldn't you? This is a dangerous game. Expanding the war into Iran is not going to make America safer and it's not going to win any friends. America needs people like Zbigniew Brzezinski to speak up now. It's clear that you can't rely on Congress, just like you couldn't rely on it in October 2002 [Iranian Army Is a Terrorist Organization - What's This All About?].
That theme was echoed by Zbigniew Brzezinski, the former national-security adviser, who said that he had heard discussions of the White House’s more limited bombing plans for Iran. Brzezinski said that Iran would likely react to an American attack “by intensifying the conflict in Iraq and also in Afghanistan, their neighbors, and that could draw in Pakistan. We will be stuck in a regional war for twenty years.”